Brasenose College – Chapel and Library

An Oxford college is a permanent set of buildings and an impermanent set of people. Brasenose College has a rich and diverse history; the College began in 1509, before that it was many academic halls, only one of which bore the name Brasenose, in 1381. Under the reign of Henry III Oxford University extended courses designed to form a meeting ground between the strictly academic and the practical. The University was a place of general resort.

Brasenose and The Restoration

The Brasenose Chapel and Library are of interest as they were built in a time of great tension for England. The Restoration had torn apart the country and the College itself was in a drought for students.  Due to the political restoration of 1660 and the Stuart Monarchy, Oxford became seen as the centre for Royalists as it was the biggest town near to London that had no Bishop, the University could be an autonomous body. New forms of architecture were created – no longer just functional – buildings became accommodating for different forms of sociability.

The original College was the lower two floors of the present Old Quadrangle, with the Hall and Tower at their present heights. The Chapel was in the south west corner; the site of the present Senior Common Room, and opposite was the Library, in the area now behind the sundial. The Principal’s Lodgings occupied most of the east side, including the Tower.

The opening of the new Library in about 1664 and the consecration of the new Chapel in 1666 made more space available in the Old Quad. This was all financed by former Principal Samuel Radcliffe (1656 to 1663) and completed in 1666.

(c) Brasenose College, University of Oxford; Supplied by The Public Catalogue Foundation

The foundation stone was laid in June 1656 and the foundations were finished in August. In March 1657 the ‘Little Cloister’ was begun, which still remains as the entrance to the Chapel, and the lead for the roof of this was paid for in July. Preparations for building the Library were started in November 1657, and the foundations were begun the following March. By the end of 1659 the Library was being glazed and the books were put in place chained in 1664.

The Architecture

The architectural style of Brasenose’s Chapel and Library is interesting as it is an amalgamation of Gothic and Classical architecture. The juxtaposition of the two styles could, if it were handled badly, be clumsy. The Gothic Revival was particularly associated with an intellectual and religious triangle formed in the South of England by Oxford, Cambridge and London; according to George Tyack since most of the more interesting minds and finer architectural talents were drawn to the Gothic Revival.^. Seventeenth-century Gothic is the most curious in England, Tyack asserts, it persistently peeps out through Renaissance ornaments and classic frontispieces-cusps and crockets (Gothic forms) mix indiscriminately with orders and entablatures (Classical forms).

Oxford remained essentially Medieval until the clash of the Civil War broke in upon her dreams. John Summerson asserts however that we should not see Classical and Gothic architecture as entirely separate and opposite, supporting Tyacks’s view that Gothic stylings are seen emulated in Renaissance works. Summerson claims that they are related through the essentials of architecture and states that Classical architecture is recognisable only when there are illusions to the antique ‘orders’.

Where Gothic and Classical architecture collide

The East side of the Library, facing Radcliffe Square, uses Gothic arched windows with tracery underneath alongside classical pediments and castellation – or battlements- that run along the roof line. The use of such clean lines of the Classical style adds a satisfying geometry with the use of repetitive forms and perfectly encapsulates the combination of styles used. The focus is on the forms created and although it is not the most ornate use of Gothic architecture the essence can still be seen in the windows’ tracery.

Like the Library the Gothic pinnacles and crockets on the Chapel roof-line accentuate the stylistic choices as they are contrasted with the simple clean lines that create the the roof-line – with pinnacles following pilasters down to the base of the Chapel. The pinnacles, although again not especially ornate (for example the finial are not as emphasised) the clean lines of the rest of the building make it so they are more of a standalone feature. Brasenose Chapel was completed in 1666. The North Window of the ante-Chapel has following geometrical tracery, but it is framed into an architrave with a broken pediment above. The East Window has geometrical bar tracery with five lancets and a rose window they have pointed heads and geometrical tracery, but are flanked by pilasters with Corinthian capitals, supporting a regular entablature.  Here the combination of styles can be seen again, playfully projecting elements.

 

The roof of the early Tudor Chapel was moved from an Augustianan college’s Chapel and moved to the Chapel of Brasenose College in 1656.The Augustinian college of St Mary, founded in 1453 occupied the house now known as Frewin Hall the college fell victim to the Reformation and this open hammer beam structure was transferred to Brasenose College. With the Hammer-beams above the plaster vault it is easy to assume that the trouble taken to transport a roof from the other side of the City implies a desire to preserve the roof, but this is a modern perception. Although the hammer beams can still be seen in the roof space above the Chapel the roof was not completely reconstructed. The point of the reuse was to save money on timber. The aesthetically astounding plaster fan vaulted ceiling was begun on Tuesday 14th June 1659. The ceiling was painted by C.E. Kempe in the 1890s and has been much praised and much criticized. The ribs of a fan vault are of equal curvature and create a central axis leading to their fan like shape which is said to be due to how the rib vault is created. The impressive shapes create a dominating element further emphasised by the Victorian addition of paint.

The Chapel has a classic t-form, the ante Chapel and Library are over a cloister.  Inside the Chapel is the use of classical woodwork in the panelling which dates from the 1680s including the egg and dart cornice. Corinthian columns with stiff-leaf capitals and further classical plinths and spira do not amalgamate the styles, like the outside, but are tied together with the Gothic windows and ceiling, by doing this the mixture of styles is less obvious as both are ornate and grand. One could claim this is due to the function of the building, as a place of worship, clean simple lines would not seem appropriate for such hallowed ground and the grandeur of their religion.

To conclude Brasenose College’s Chapel and Library and the period of 1656 to 1666 serve as an interesting point on the architectural timeline of Oxford. They are significant because the building of a new Library and Chapel at Brasenose was the only major project in the period of the Commonwealth (between the fall of Charles I and 1666.) The wealth of the institution did not decline but the students did. With the Chapel’s and Library’s use of what is deemed as contrasting styles, whose usual proponents are hostile to one another,  they instead create a satisfying harmony between the components in their architecture. The Chapel and Library could be seen as proving John Summerson’s theory that Gothic and Classical architecture are not completely worlds apart, if these styles were so jarring they would not be able to harmoniously work in the cases shown in Brasenose.

What are museums/galleries for? (with specific examples)

From the fifteenth century, museums were collections of random objects showing human achievement and natural wonder. The elite circle welcomed into the home of their adversary would discuss and examine in detail a collection of objects, they were part of a ritual connoisseurship (studiolos previously mentioned in What are Studiolos? A trip to The Louvre…). By the sixteenth century these collections had turned in to whole cabinets of curiosity that were more systematic, with ordered classifications of things such as; gems, coins and medals. Both of these aspects can still be seen into today’s museums, people still go to judge labelled, specifically chosen items. Museums have, however, expanded through the centuries with the focus changing in the twenty-first century. Art galleries were often a part of museums and never on such a grand scale, seen today in places such as the Tate Modern. Today, museums and galleries are more focused on appealing to a wider public, whilst creating their own brand and position in the culture of their surrounding areas and country as a whole.

MOMA – creating a culture

One example of this branding strategy is ‘The Museum of Modern Art’ in New York. ‘MOMA’, according to the art historian Christoph Grunenberg, ‘MOMA’ brought a new way of looking at art for Americans. ‘MOMA’ has a collection of forty-thousand works from 1880 to the present day and is generally believed to be the most comprehensive collection of modern art in the world. As it was the first museum to be solely focused on modern art it brought modernism to America, whilst simultaneously making the museum synonymous with the modernist movement. ‘MOMA’ therefore helped change the path of art for America, rather than showing the artiefacts or informing them of their culture, they helped shape the culture and helped instigate the modernist movement in America. The Bauhaus and private collections shaped the museum in this way. By transitioning from temporary to permanent collections the museum became more of a fixed institution and in turn modern art became more accessible for the American public.

Accessibility and appeasement

The accessibility of museums and galleries also has to satisfy the requests and expectations of whomever funds them. Most European museums and galleries are municipal organisations they therefore not only serve the public but the needs and expectations of the government. As they are accountable to the government funding they need to appear as accessible as possible to justify tax funding.  In the United States, however, there is more of a need to satisfy the trustees or corporate sources, as they are usually private organisations. It could be argued then that they are controlled by the tastes of the trustees, to please them.

Scitex Eversmart Supreme Scan from: B/W Photograph Scanned by: Rosa Laster Date:5/20/04

For ‘MOMA’s’ trustees, like the Rockefellers, the museum was an outlet for their philanthropic needs, a way to give back to the public whilst still having control as to what way. ‘MOMA did come under fire, with regard to the way the artworks were void of cultural context, this was seen as a typical capitalist social order as it encouraged individualism. Such a statement of intent can be seen in ‘MOMA’s’ need to expel a positive and relevant external image and uphold a high standard of involvement to the public as they are used to quality service in other aspects of their lives.

No longer stuffy and old

Museums and galleries have aimed to move away from the stuffy preconceptions of museums being superior and academically elitist. The Tate Modern gallery despite ridding this view of stuffiness still shows the art within to be sacred, in the architecture of the building. Andrew Marr describes galleries to be like a cathedral where art work can be revered and worshipped, the old power station that has been transformed into the Tate Modern, whilst still evoking the industrial feeling of the surrounding areas, exudes this feeling. The Doric cubist column could be seen as a church spire and prepares the gallery goer to understand the contents to be sacred, the dark red brick also acts as a landmark in the otherwise concrete and glass architecture surrounding the Tate Modern.

Museums and galleries were viewed as bastions of knowledge, that were welcome only to the privilege classes, the Tate Modern and ‘MOMA’ are not raised from street level. In the nineteenth century traditionally, museums were elevated above the pavement, representing the museum as a temple of knowledge the visitor journeys up a grand staircase to the sight of the classical architecture of plinths and a intimidating entrance, that looms over the visitor. Such overpowering architecture can be seen in Britain in museums like the original part of Tate Britain and The Ashmolean. The Tate Modern and MOMA create the same response through their presence in their surrounding areas, the intimidating Tate and the bold outside of MOMA.

The Architecture of a museum and relating to the public

‘MOMA’ has a cold façade the use of glass and clean lines, without being intimidating this however helps the inside of the museum seem more intimate as it starkly contrasts the interior. With low ceilings and small rooms the public seem to have more of a relationship with the works, furthering the idea that museums and galleries should be a personal experience. The soft curves and abundance of glass walls helps ease the transition of outside to inside. The outside gets gradually less visible, emphasising that the connection between the outside and inside of the modern world is the public rather than the culture.

‘MOMA’ not only brought a new sort of collection to America it refined a new a way of exhibiting for museums globally, coining the term ‘the white cube’ . The sterile interior helps detach the social and political implications of the period showing that some museums today are attempting to be void of outside influences, and trying to create a purely aesthetic experience. Christoph Grunenberg argues that the use of ‘the white cube’ has been taken in to consideration by modern artists. Knowing that the white walls would be the surroundings of their work artists – such as Ellsworth Kelly – use irregular shapes that would emphasise the essential formal qualities of abstract paintings and sculpture. The museum has therefore become part of the art itself, not only shaping public access but the actual artistic practice.

‘MOMA’ takes this relation to the people further in the architecture. The architects, Philip Goodwin and Edward Durell Stone, made the museum look like a department store. By having the name of the museum  blazoned on the outside, it makes an allusion to the department stores of America. The conclusion brought from the outside of MOMA therefore is that it presents modern art as a commodity, something accessible and to be acquired.‘MOMA’ turned modern art into a business, the product being art.

Facilities and interaction

There has been an expansion in facilities in museums and galleries today. They have become more of an overall experience, like a leisure attraction, feeding into all needs of the individual. This could be argued to encourage more of an acquisition of knowledge or to encourage consumerism in the museum. Henry Taylor claimed that museums would one day become like a free informal university for the common man.

Museums have become accessible during weekends and outside of work hours this wider audience has caused ‘MOMA’ to make high art understandable for diverse levels of educated people, which could cause art to become trivialized Museums today have a pedagogic style, where people are participative in learning. Instead of being presented visually with just a display, interactive areas are available for the visitor where they are encouraged to give their opinion or response, making the individual’s importance emphasised.

Enriching institutions

Modern day museums and galleries also helped redefine what could be classed as art. ‘MOMA’ for example, was the first museum to include a film library and architecture and design department. Lessons can be taken by visitors in ‘MOMA’ in discovering the history of modern art, with little option of direction visitors are forced through a specific route showing the development of modern art.

Museums and galleries are themselves generators of income, as they can promote economic growth in areas previously rundown, like Tate Modern for the Borough of Southwark. Tate Modern also strives to make links within the community, as it consults with local groups, appointing a local development officer and created a visitor centre. These additions show the gallery to be more than just a way to present art works, it is a way of developing the surrounding area and enriching the public.

Art-a reflection of prevailing political values in the interwar period?

The period between the close of the nineteenth century to the outbreak of World War Two was characterised by a widespread sense of crisis, for Western society. The feeling of crisis was brought about by the immense technological advances and political upheavals during the period that welcomed in a new age, leaving behind the old familiar structure of society, the replacements of which were not always fully apparent. The amalgamation of destruction, innovation and enormous cultural, politcal and social change created an unknown future and (for some) created a feeling of fear and despondency, others however welcomed the future and were invigorated by inspiration. These two juxtaposing responses to the feeling of crisis are represented in the art of the nations affected, in Europe.

In Britain movements such as Unit One wanted to break free from tradition and pursue new forms of representation. Comparatively in the Netherlands the De Stijl movement sort to understand philosophical fundamentals, with such political freedoms in both countries it is understandable that these movements took a turn into the psyche rather than problems in their current environment.

Three Forms 1935 Dame Barbara Hepworth 1903-1975 Presented by Mr and Mrs J.R. Marcus Brumwell 1964 http://www.tate.org.uk/art/work/T00696

In Germany however with the rising popularity of the Nazi party art was seen as a threat and another area of society that needed to be tethered down into the party line. Likewise Russia’s confusing political map created an environment where art was being used as a tool to create and help discover what the new country should be culturally.

Britain and The Netherlands.

Some artists saw art as an ontological quest, such philosophical pursuits could only be explored in an environment in which there were societal freedoms, for example Britain and The Netherlands. The First World War was a battle of unprecedented destruction, compared to all the wars of the two preceding centuries combined the First World War had twice as many casualties. Coming from this total dissemination of society the pubic were left in a state of utter loss. Soldiers returning from the war also added to the messy situation, some were injured and unemployable and those able to work came back to an already saturated market where the previous positions had been filled. By 1921 the figure of unemployed British people receiving benefit payments reached over 2 million. Economic stress was however relieved through programs including unemployment insurance, old age pensions, and subsidising housing. Before the Labour Party came to power in 1924 and in 1929, Britain had adopted a welfare state to ensure there was no decline in the standard of living for British Workers.

The Labour Party rose as the second of the two great parties of Britain displacing the Liberal Party after the election of 1922 and opposed the conservatives as official opposition. Mostly founded from the trade and labour unions who struggled to maintain the wage gains received in wartime. Strikes from British unions broke out over welfare policies and the government had to implement change. With this societal shift away from the Victorian laissez-faire approach, towards the support and the growth of social welfare there was a greater focus on the power of the individual, the average citizen was beginning to have a voice, therefore art in Britain was freer. A focus on the individual can also be seen in the Dutch art of the De Stijl movement, this could be due to the fact that the Netherlands had a similar financial and political situation as Britain. In The Netherlands there was a growing interference of the state with almost all aspects of public life; for example with unemployment insurance. The Netherlands however remained Liberal, especially financially seen with their retention of the gold standard.

In ‘Neo-Plasticism in Painting’ (1917) Piet Mondrian expresses his interpretation of the ideals followed by De Stijl, the artistic movement that he was a part of. Mondrian states that if we see man’s consciousness growing toward determination, if we see it – in time – developing from individual to universal then logically the new art can never return to form – or to natural colour. Then, logically, the consistent growth and development of abstract plastic must progress to its culmination. These beliefs that abstraction is the true form of representation can be seen to culminate in his aptly named ‘Compositions’.

Composition with Yellow, Red, Blue, Black, Gray (1920) is a painting purely consisting of coloured squares and rectangles focusing upon the interplay of line and colour, a harmony is brought by the masterful arrangement creating a balance and one whole. The Compositions represent the philosophy of De Stijl, the followers for example believed in the social role of art, design and architecture and that art had a transformative power to change the future and people’s lives. Mondrian also believed in collaboration amongst artists and creation of a total work of art. Mondrian also believed that the main aim in life is balance between the universal and collective and the specific and the individual. It is interesting to point out however that those in the movement saw no links to politics. Artists such as Mondrian and Van Doesburg saw politics as a lowly field in comparison to art and their  ‘universal’ ideas. A complete contrast to Britain and the Netherlands can be seen in Russian and Germany understandably the politics of these two countries were contrastingly very tumultuous during the interwar period.

Bolshevik Russia

Russian artists were used to make a representative culture and in by doing so pure abstraction would be a hard pursuit as specific political and culture ideas were trying to be expressed. Artists were utilised as tools to help present the new Soviet culture that was being created, Art was used by Lenin to represent the ideals of the Soviet Union, away from those of the previous Romanov Dynasty that ruled Russia. Despite being used however the response to a political crisis can be seen as a positive revitalising one for artist, as they were incorporated and encouraged to explore forms of representation, this is shown in works such as Vladimir Tatlin’s Monument to the 3rd International created in 1919.  The sculpture communicates the idea of movement to a more progressive place.

Germany

Nazi Germany however was less a feeling of creativity and innovation as artists were specifically controlled and restrained seen best in the history of The Bauhaus design school. The Bauhaus was formed in 1919 under the directorship of Walter Gropius in Weimar Germany and epitomises the impact of politics on artist and architectural design. Historian John V Maciuika asserts that the Weimer Republic emerged from the ashes of a shattering military defeat and claims that The Bauhaus is a classic example of an institution that grew out of the post-war era – a unique circumstance. Like in many European countries there were strands of artistc movements that looked back to a form of classicism. The Bauhaus’ purpose was to revive the crafts, Gropius saw the best approach would be a “craft-oriented practical approach”

Marcel Breur (1922) – Cherrywood with horsehair and cotton upholstery

The growth of Nationalism in Germany however led the school to be seen as a menace to German culture, by not resting in traditional forms, despite using traditional crafting skills.

In the schools’ early history it was a part of a freer society and so the members were allowed to explore craft – by the 1930s however cabinet making, metal and mural painting workshops were amalgamated into a single ‘interior design’ The students also had to sign a declaration., any reference to Communism was gravely punished and in fact some members were fired or pushed to leave

Hannes Meyer who was director 1928-1930 stated ‘I am going to the USSR in order to work where a truly proletarian culture is coming into being, where that society already exists for which we here under capitalism have been fighting.’

Meyer also claimed:

“The Dessau Bauhaus is not an artistic, but a social phenomenon as gestalter our activities are determined by society, and the scope of our task is set by society. Does not our present society in Germany call for thousands of people’s schools, people’s parks, people’s houses?”

Meyer was later replaced by Mies van der Rohe. Meyer was seen as aligning too closely with Communist ideals, here the political make-up of the country can  be seen to be influencing the arts. It was closed down by Nazi regime in 1933, here the threat of the creative minds can be seen to be directly targeted by politics.

Carl Schmitt asserts that political actions and motives can be condensed to distinctions between friend and enemy as all life is based on the distinctions between fundamental opposites “good and evil in aesthetics beautiful and ugly, in economics profitable and unprofitable” Art was used as a reply to that fundamental dialectic.

 

The Story of Art’, by Ernst Hans Gombrich – analysis

by Carolyn Djanogly, bromide fibre print, 3 May 1997

The Story of Art’, by Ernst Hans Gombrich, originally written in 1950, is a history of art from cave paintings to modern art. The chapter on which this essay is focusing, Permanent Revolution- The nineteenth century, explores the changing art scene, during the period, claiming it to be a seminal moment in art history, permanently changing the way we view and create art. This essay will explore and evaluate Gombrich’s argument, with regard to differing historical approaches and concepts. Gombrich uses artists as a framework for the turbulent period of art in the nineteenth century; he explores the idea of the era being revolutionary and lays focus on the Impressionists.

How he begins

Gombrich starts by setting the era into its historical context, discussing the impact of the Industrial Revolution claiming it to have destroyed “the very traditions of solid craftsmanship” and in turn paving a new way for art, one that was less focused on skill and more focused on expressing the artists’ individual personality. This contextualisation, however, becomes very sparse further on in the text; the only explanation for the period is with regard to the society of the time.  Here we see a downfall in Gombrich’s analysis, by having such little focus on context it makes the era seem like it has no influence in the art of the time. Despite this lack of historical context, Gombrich does comment on the impact of  the introduction of  photography claiming that realism was no longer as sought after as much as emotion and individuality of style.

Revolution?

Gombrich uses the term revolution throughout the text, and as a way of heading the whole content of the chapter. A revolution means a sudden or rapid change, often regarding the over throwing of governments. Here the governmental system is the established traditionalism in art. The cyclical explanation of progress is one followed by other progress historians like, for example, Giorgio Vasari. Vasari saw art in the thirteenth century and onwards, as having three stages; from rebirth in the ancient period, to building in accuracy and then surpassing the beauty of nature and in time reaching a height of perfection, which is an anachronistic view. Similarly, Gombrich claims the revolution of the nineteenth century to have three stages, the first being imagination over draughtsmanship, secondly challenging the conventions of subject matter and thirdly rethinking the representation of men or objects in a less artificial way. Gombrich claims the revolution to have stages, undermining the meaning of a sudden rapid change, and perhaps alluding to the Impressionist approach being the correct form of art, as it grows and becomes more refined and perfected.

A teleological, ignorant view?

Gombrich prioritises Impressionism over Realism and the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, this could be due to the period in which he is writing. In the 1950s Modernism made the idea that primitive form and the ousting of significant form was more popular, something which was first begun by the Impressionists and their focus on colour and tone. It could be argued therefore that the extract has an element of a teleological view, by knowing how art progressed into modernism; Gombrich pin points the Impressionists as important when during their time they were severely mocked, as stated in the extract, by the reception of the Impressionist exhibition: “I have seen people rock with laughter in front of these pictures”.  By simplifying a period in to these steps Gombrich is detracting and ignoring other art forms and areas in the period for example: Cezanne. This focus on the Impressionists, however, could be a way of showing a simple path of history for the uninitiated reader to be able to follow a linear, story in art.

Despite the book being an overview of the changing aspects of art in history, the influences of some artists is ignored, therefore making the revolution in art, during the nineteenth century, seem solely a product of France and “a handful of lonely men”for example Manet, Monet and Renoir. Gombrich’s use of canon creates a blatant gender discrimination to Gombrich’s approach, women are not mentioned during the chapter, apart from when describing the group of Impressionists: “Five or six lunatics, among them a woman” the mocking tone of the quote, from what Gombrich claims to be a “humorous weekly”, shows Gombrich’s sheer disinterest in female artists of the period and from art in general. Gombrich, it could be argued, is following what feminist historian Linda Nochlin claims to be a typical ideological approach to art history, ignoring the “successful, if not great, women artists throughout history”. Gombrich’s approach is very much a Whig history and shows another weakness in Gombrich’s argument, by creating an overview and a simplified explanation of art, during the period; it becomes sparsely detailed and has to prioritise certain points in history. Gombrich focuses on the interesting points in art history for the nineteenth century, which could be a way of making art history accessible for the audience of the text, the uninitiated but interested reader. Gombrich is therefore making value judgements and narrowing the historical explanation, creating a weak explanation, again maybe to help his audience.

Is he just carving a narrative for the sake of the reader?

Despite his ignorance to female artists, the artists Gombrich does mention create an identity for the reader to relate to, something that would otherwise be an anonymous art movement comes to life with actual characters. The hardship of the Impressionists is described in relation to the critics and the fight against societies’ ideological traditionalism during the period, making the information seem more accessible and easy to engage with. Much like Vasari’s description of Cimabue and Giotto, although supported by diary entries, Gombrich seems to add an element of conjecture to animate the history, perhaps creating a story-like quality to the piece. Gombrich however does not focus on an innate genius, unlike Vasari. Gombrich uses mainly primary sources from quotes of people in the era and uses the paintings as the sources like Vasari.  Vasari did not have the benefit of secondary sources so it could be argued that his lacking of other historical opinions is understandable. Gombrich however is, in his argument and discussion, ignoring the views of other historians, this is a distinct weakness in his chapter, and makes his information seem ill informed and one sided. Gombrich discusses actual techniques of artists, and how they have advanced through the period, linking this to a change in ideology towards a firm belief in an artist’s conscience rather than pleasing an audience.

Influences on art

Despite Gombrich laying more focus on the Impressionists he does however describe how style serves each artistic medium differently, as a way of explaining buildings in architecture, as they had distinct bygone styles. In paintings or sculpture conventions like this were not present, but he does claim that this left an uncertainty for artists and described a turbulent relationship with the public. The artists having a wider field of taste meant it was less likely to coincide with that of the public’s therefore showing society to have a direct impact with the success of an artist.

Marcia Pointon similarly talks about the economic influence of art and how artists need, what today would be called, a unique selling point, like the Impressionists challenging the zeitgeist creating their own forms of expression. Patrons were important in showing the level of an artist, Gombrich similarly rests on the importance of patrons saying that they served as a way of supporting artists but with the break of tradition came the break of this safety net. This change of period came because of the emergence of a consumerist middle class and contempt for conventions.

During post war Britain, Gombrich would have been aware of the importance in restoring culture and protecting Art. The historian Francis Haskell, in ‘Past and Present in Art and Taste’, claims that we are a product of our time, that art has many meanings to each era looking at them, but this history of taste is ignored as ‘The Story of Art’ is simply an informative text on the progression of art through history.  The end of the extract shows no clear conclusion; the aesthetic movement is alluded to at the end of the chapter, perhaps showing the topic of the next chapter. Due to the nature of the book as a whole, judgements of specific time periods cannot be made fully. Thus points in history that lead to the next movement need to be focused on to help inform the reader on the pathway already created in history. By always passing onto the next chapter and the next era of history, the end of one chapter needs to link to the next, therefore a coherent, balanced, conclusion cannot be made. How can a conclusion be brought in a book, in which, by its very nature will always be expanding as art itself is an ever increasing form of expression?

Ben Nicholson (1894 – 1982) – Bio – selected works and influences

Background and Style

Nicholson’s earliest paintings were still lifes influenced by those of his father, Sir William Nicholson. In the 1920s he began painting figurative and abstract works inspired by Post Impressionism and Cubism. By 1932 Ben Nicholson had started a relationship with Barbara Hepworth, sharing a studio together in Hampstead. Ben Nicholson and Hepworth spent 1933 travelling and meeting inspirational artists such as Braque, Brancusi and Picasso. In April of 1933 the couple traveled through France, Hepworth meets Brancusi at his studio in Paris, Saint-Rémy-de-Provence. Along with friends Mondrian and Lazlo Moholy-Nagy they were invited to join the Paris-based group Abstraction-Creation. Nicholson took inspiration from them and became celebrated for his ability to synthesize and abstract from nature its bare essentials, and re-form them in compositions of extreme elegance and clarity.

1933

St Rémy – self-portrait with Barbara Hepworth – Oil on canvas, 27.3 x 16.8 cm

The painting is composed of two over lapping busts, Ben Nicholson (left) and his second wife at the time, Barbara Hepworth (right) Between the figures is a repetition of the outlined shapes. The painting depicts stylised and simplified rounded forms, inspired by primitive art like Picasso’s. The piece overall has a tonal harmony, blue and grey tones, are calming and complimentary. But also add an element of coldness to the piece. There is a sense of pattern in the mirroring outlines of the figures, and the round forms of her hair and an abandonment of coherent perspective, adding focus to the couple. The strong outline is reminiscent of Gauguin, a technique Hepworth also uses. Varying brushstrokes are used adding an unfinished quality to work, making the energy seem spontaneous. Thin layers of paint are used with a dry brush, making you able to see the hatched texture of the canvas, creating a flatness to the painting.

The darker blue draws attention to a middle figure which could be representative of the intertwined lives of the couple, in a way of emphasising the connection between the two.(Or more literally it could simply be an exaggerated shadow) The mirroring forms create a sense of fluidity, this alongside the tonal qualities implicates a calm atmosphere. The couple are also reminiscent of portraits on coins, adding a sense of regality to the two. The colour blue is often associated with sadness, perhaps Nicholson is representing his emotional state. The representation of the eyes is interesting as they are not the same. Nicholson’s eye appears hollow, where as Hepworth’s seem more feminine and seem to be looking out to the viewer. Sadness and cold colours are things unexpected of a connected happy couple in love.

1933

St Rémy Provence 105 x 93 cm

This work by Nicholson is another, slightly different depiction of his second wife Barbara Hepworth. Here represented on the left hand side of the painting, being embraced by Nicholson. The work’s simplicity and its minimal lines that outline each figure was a trend that Nicholson used in many of his works. Following the trend of Cubism, Nicholson’s main objective in this piece was to present the pureness of the nude Hepworth – to which 5 years after this piece was done married her. The flatness of this piece is taken from his inspiration from Braque – a fellow sculptor and painter from France – to whom he and Hepworth visited a year earlier.

Compared to the previous piece the colours used are much darker. The dark, almost dirty, colours used in this painting are not a traditional type of palette, for a portrait of a couple in love. The black silhouetted figures dominate the picture space greatly contrasting the white portrait behind. The connection between Hepworth and Nicholson is shown in their intertwined bodies, represented in such a way that it is difficult to decipher which arm is Hepworth’s or Nicholson’s.The lighter face could be interpreted as Nicholson’s soul or the energy between the two, as there is more fluidity to the lines and colour, making it seem more ethereal. Echoing the blue in the previous portrait, between Hepworth and Nicholson. In this painting the influence of artists like Picasso can be seen in the reduction of representative form, drawing on the style of Picasso’s 1920s portraits of his lover Marie-Thérèse Walter

Another establisher of Cubism, Braque was an artist that influenced Nicholson in his earlier works, using techniques of perspective and rules of geometry to create a composition. For example, the lines that he uses in St Rémy Provence are reduced geometric forms of the human structure, essentially portraying only the most principal parts of the face and outline of the body. Like Braque, Nicholson also emphasizes the effect of light in his work to create the illusion of it being both three dimensional and flat.

However the main aspect that Nicholson derived from Braque was his employment of composition. Using a restricted number of concrete objects to form the main structure of the piece. Such as in St Rémy Provence he uses himself and Hepworth as the main focal points of the painting. The clarity of these profiles is a severe jump from the physical structure of them in reality.

1932

Auberge de la Sole Dieppoise, Oil on plywood 983 x 804cm

Another of Ben Nicholson’s work that can be compared to St Rémy Provence is his creation a year before in 1932 – Auberge de la Sole Dieppoise. Hepworth is again represented by Nicholson through a window in France, the flatness of the surface is emphasised by the words depicted.

This is another piece that Nicholson has incorporated Braque’s techniques into, of perspective, geometry and effects of light. Described as the ‘principal representative of Abstraction in English art between the wars’, Nicholson referred to it being ‘the forerunner of his rough [exposed and simplistic] reliefs’.

A trip to The Louvre sparks an exploration into Isabella D’este and her Studiolo Paintings

 

Who was Isabella D’este?

Isabella D’este was Marchesa of Mantua, her husband (Francesco II Gonzaga, Marquess of Mantua) lead the Italian city until his death; Isabella D’este however was not just a spouse, D’este governed Mantua in his absence. D’este therefore represents a significant part of history by being a powerful female, the fact she ruled in his stead shows the type of character D’este was, she is also noteworthy as she was a prolific patron. D’este commissioned many artworks to help the culture of Mantua blossom, this is apparent in her studiolo paintings.  D’este’s allegorical and mythological studiolo paintings represent the artistic influence she had on the culture and society of Mantua.

D’este’s studiolo.

Isabella d’Este was famed for her studiolo and grotto and the objects therein. An object in the studiolo would come to reflect the intellectual attributes of the owner and would present a way for the owner’s worldly and scholarly ability to be appreciated. The studiolo was also an interactive persuit, visitors had to find signs of virtue in the objects of the studiolo therefore presenting their knowledge. The possession of ancient virtues was thought to depend on the extent of knowledge of the ancient precedents, and so studying the Classical world became a virtue. The studiolo was where this form of virtuous scholarship was performed. The visitors would generally be those with specific academic understanding, for example poets and humanists, such people would have an understanding of academic subjects such as Greek mythology.

Deste’s paintings.

D’este’s studiolo had five paintings, the room would have been encased by these paintings, creating an inevitable need for close viewing proximity; this inspired the paintings to have acute details and deep meanings. Guests were encouraged to find morals, the paintings would have been viewed by those with specific academic understanding such people would have a deep understanding of academic subjects such as Greek mythology, and so some characters that may be difficult to recognise today would have been immediately identifiable to the crowd of the time.

D’este attempted to commission work from Da Vinci and Bellini however the five paintings in the sequence are: two by Andrea Mantegna, two by Lorenzo Costa and one by Pietro Perugino. This essay will focus on ‘Mars and Venus’ (sometimes titled Parnassus) painted in 1497 by Andrea Mantegna and ‘The Battle of Chastity and Lasciviousness’ painted in 1505 by Pietro Perugino.

‘Mars and Venus’ is featured first in the sequence and ‘The Battle of Chastity and Lasciviousness’ is third.

Andrea Mantegna.

Andrea Mantegna worked for the Marchioness and Marquess of the courts and was on a salary, unlike most artists he was not the artist of a Republic or Pope. The question has to be asked why was Mantegna the only artist commissioned for the studiolo paintings that was in employment; by studying the work he presented we can discover why. Mantegna’s ‘Mars and Venus’ features the Greek Mythological couple Mars (God of war) and Venus (Goddess of love) who are elevated on a natural arch of rock, whilst underneath the nine muses are dancing and are connected in an harmonious loop underneath Mars and Venus. Peace and balance is expressed through the presence of woodland creatures at the bottom of the painting, the animals are not afraid of the people but instead are peeking out. One interpretation is that the paintings represents the Arts flourishing, it is also claimed that Venus’ features are akin to D’este’s and that the painting represents her power over the arts and culture in Mantua and the peace she has brought through supporting them. Mantegna’s presentation of the story shows his power as an artist the painting, masterfully depicted, does not over complicate the narrative.

Pietro Preugino in comparison

Contrastingly Perugino’s ‘The Battle of Chastity and Lasciviousness’ has a dizzying depiction of a battle between virtue and vice (a theme that runs through all of the studiolo paintings) By close guidance of D’este, Perugino uses Greek mythological characters to represent the moral battle between love and lust. Pallas and Diana represent lust and are in battle with Venus and Cupid, representative of love. Mantegna masterfully presents his story with clear pockets of narrative, where as Perugino’s battle, although presenting confusion, is unsuccessful in producing a legible narrative. It could be argued that Perugino was tailoring his work to D’este’s studiolo by presenting a work that needed to be studied in detail, but in doing so the message becomes aesthetically confused and does not give a striking overall reaction. The viewer is left feeling uneasy as there is no resolution to the combat, with the battle still in process the moral that love conquers is not expressed and so the painting fails to present the crux of the narrative. Similarly Mantegna’s work, although seemingly presenting balance, is challenged by the appearance of Vulcan.

Vulcan is Venus’ husband and the fabricator of fire and metal, his presence makes Mars and Venus’ relations adulterous, a putto is seen to be firing at Vulcan, possibly Cupid son of Venus, adding to the discordance, the dark cave of Vulcan portrays the tempestuous relations. The putto is firing towards Vulcan’s genitals and hanging behind Vulcan are grapes, these both could be referring to sex and extinguishing the flames of passion, like Perugino’s work a battle between love and lust is alluded to.

Both paintings are in a pastoral setting and utilise nature as a tool to help tell the story. In Perugino’s work an olive tree with an owl perched on top which are both symbols referring to Pallas. The second tree, the myrtle represents Venus; these are symbols that D’este and her learned guests would recognise. By positioning the two trees on either side of the canvas, framing Diana and Venus fighting, the two opposing options for the viewer is expressed showing how separate the two choices of vice and virtue are.

Featured in both paintings is Hermes (Mercury), in Mantegna’s work he dominates the right-hand side of the canvas with Pegasus. As the painting was for a Western audience (that reads left to right) although he is depicted the largest, he does not overpower the obvious hierarchy of Mars and Venus.  In Perugino’s work Mercury is above the battle, in both paintings he is holding his sceptre, which represents peace. The fact that he is grounded in Mantegna’s work could reinforce the apparent harmony present and explain why in Perugino’s he is above the battle, yet to bring peace and order.

Isabella D’este was a highly educated woman; this is shown in the paintings of her studiolo and her active role in the ruling of Mantua. D’este wanted the result of the series of paintings to be “classical subjects with beautiful meanings” here the artists’ work can be seen to be successfully presented, perhaps Perugino is less successful as D’este was adamant of what had to be included in the work, D’este may however have been so constricting as she knew the ability of the artist was less of that of Mantegna, someone that she felt was talented enough to employ full-time. Both works feature unresolved problems and represent deciding in conflict; Mantegna however presents the scenario that is about to begin rather than Perugino’s approach of showing the most hectic part of the narrative. Mantegna’s vivid approach creates a crisp representation with new details to find with each viewing. Perugino attempts to be expansive to portray the immense battle of vice and virtue; putty and nymphs are en route in the background to come to the aid of Venus, although emotive this however dilutes the narrative and it is unclear as to who is on which side of the battle.

What are Studiolos?

Studiolos (Italian for study) are rooms, often in a far corner of the house and this positioning in the home represented the level of intimacy between the host/hostess and the guest.

• During the 15th and 16th Century familiarity was represented by where in a home you were allowed to be entertained, the bedroom was surprisingly less intimate than the studiolo.
• A studiolo is only seen be the inner circle of the owner and therefore a deep understanding of those people is apparent.
• The visitors would generally be those with specific academic understanding, for example poets and humanists, such people would have an understanding of academic subjects such as Greek mythology
• The study was also a way of inspiring creativity; guests would discuss the paintings and objects in the studiolo in detail and it would go on to inspire art, such as poetry.
• The possession of ancient virtues was thought to depend on the extent of knowledge of the ancient precedents, and so studying the Classical world became a virtue. The studiolo was where this form of virtuous scholarship was performed

To understand what would be within a studiolo:

1480 Duke Ercole d’Este Ferrara said of Palazzo Medici :

“There on a table he had brought his jewels… vases, cups, hard-stone coffers mounted with gold, of various stones, jasper and others. There was there a crystal beaker mounted with a lid and a silver foot, which was studded with pearls, rubies, diamonds and other stones. A dish carved inside with diverse figures, two large bowls full of ancients coins, one of gold coins and the other full of silver, then a little case with many jewels, rings and engraved stones”

Sara Schonberg https://www.flickr.com/photos/orangemaille/albums/

Frederick Sandys: his sitters and his works in relation to the Pre-Raphaelites. (In depth!)

Introduction.

There arises a great intimacy between an artist and his sitter. To be able to create a recognisable likeness of an individual the two must be in one another’s company for many days and the artist must study closely each little idiosyncrasy of their muse. To be a successfully captivating portrait the artist should bring out the sitter’s character or spirit, and not simply their physical likeness. Artist and sitter accommodate each other as they strive to reach common ground. Richard Wendorf claims that the actual sittings and the final portrait is a symbol of the contractual basis of the agreement between the two; the painting is a record of this transaction and a record of the personal and artistic encounter that produced it. Some portraits however do not depict the sitter themselves instead the sitter is simply a model, a conduit for the artists’ idealised presentation of a character, and this is true for several of the paintings that will be discussed here. Portraiture, as Joanna Woodall states, has been the most popular genre of painting in western art and this could be due to the relatability of human features and their ability to communicate intense emotions, for this to be done successfully it relies heavily on the relationship between artist and sitter.

Fredrick Sandys (although a highly gifted artist) has been somewhat overlooked in his position in history, not regarded as part of the Pre Raphaelite Brotherhood of the original seven artists, one would assume him to be an inferior artist; his skill however is evident in his works.

By delving into the relationship between artist and subject the viewer can become more enlightened and aware as to why the portrait exists and perhaps what the portrait is meaning to convey. The literature that exists already with regard to Sandys is sparse; he is simply an additional after-thought or comparison to other more acclaimed artists in the Pre Raphaelite-movement. Sandys’ subject matters, although far from ground breaking during the period he was working, (Greek mythology, literary figures, members of the aristocracy) are presented in such finite detail his mastery of the paint should be recognised and appreciated. One of Sandys’ early patrons was Reverend James Bulwer, From 1845 to 1858 Sandys made 220 watercoloured architectural and antiquarian drawings and also etched them for Bulwer. The ability to recreate objects and buildings in minute detail would come to greatly inform Sandys’ style.

Sandys and Howell: The Portrait of Charles Augustus Howell (1882)

From his portrait Portrait of Charles Augustus Howell (Fig.3) Howell may seem quite an unlikely character to be a part of the inner circle of the Pre-Raphaelites: a stuffy, lethargic, formal man. Howell was however well accepted by the group for a long period partially due to his upbringing and also because of his experiences of what became his new profession.  Howell did however fall from grace with accusations of theft and deception, and before this portrait he had become unpopular in the Pre-Raphaelite circle. Charles Howell was the son of a British drawing master and so Howell had some understanding of art from his father and in turn he was able to better appreciate the art world, from an artist’s perspective. He became known by the Rossetti brothers; they met in 1857 and because of his appreciation of the aesthetic world and his taste in art he became closer to the Pre-Raphaelites and the art movement during the period.  Sandys also made Rossetti’s acquaintance in 1857, and this could go to explain why he was also seen as an outsider in Pre-Raphaelite circles by not being at the formation of the ideals but instead just as an artist with a similar style.

The meeting of Sandys and Howell.

Howell was employed to carry out Ruskin’s philanthropies and assist in setting up protégés, for example like Edward Burne Jones and Charles Fairfax Murray. With this employment therefore Howell became to have a close connection with the art world and the artists within it, further developing his taste and understanding. It could be argued by seeing the work and effort that goes into becoming technically good and understanding the tempestuous nature of the art market itself he could sympathise with the struggles artists had to go through, for example in Frederick Sandys. Sandys drew portraits of Charles Howell, his wife Kate and his daughter Rosalind. The first mention of Sandys and Howell as acquaintances is in the mention of the fact they were betting companions. A fitting introduction as Howell’s and Sandys’ relationship would come to very much rely on finance and the economic woes of Sandys himself. There is evidence of the Sandys’ Howell friendship during this time in the diaries of George Boyce, as they visited Rossetti together, the relationship was primarily economic and in turn this would lead to the demise of their relationship.

The portrait

Howell’s expression in the portrait expresses a feeling of deep tedium this could be seen to not only relate to the previously mentioned tiresome practise of sitting for a portrait but the fraught relationship of Sandys and Howell during this period. The unfinished painterly technique adds further to the intimacy of this portrait, instead of a well-polished completed portrait, it simply begins to fade away into the canvas. Much like Howell’s posture, what would usually have been a gentile pose in classic portraits it has become slumped. The colours used in the portrait also express the dull qualities of the moment being depicted and is reinforced through Howell’s expression, the pallet of beiges and the dominant white of the canvas add to the feeling of boredom. Howell seems to be floating, removed from any reality and not grounded with any background adding to the hopeless expression in the portrait.

Their relationship

Sandys’ depended on Howell to sell his pictures, help pay debts but also to find fabrics, furnishing and accessories to use in his pictures. Howell therefore had a very important role and influence in the work of Sandys by changing the aesthetics of his work and deciding what would be featured, although composition would obviously be determined by Sandys content was very much influenced by Howell’s understanding and connections. Traditional interpretations of the PRB’s state that their intention was to paint closer to nature with empirical realism and iconographic meaning. Codell perpetuates the idea that through the inspiration of the poet Keats they also constructed a symbolic language to convey tensions between social demands represented by rich material settings and intense interior emotional states expressed through body language. Here Sandys’ style can be seen to be evident, Sandys relied heavily on a dense and vivid use of colour and technique to help express varying textures seen in the clothing and hair.

From this portrait one is unable to see the other side to Howell, he was a shady character who began to become unfavoured in the Pre-Raphaelite circles as it became known of his exhumation of Elizabeth Siddal corpse, one of Rossetti’s great loves. Rossetti requested Howell to retrieve his poems that he had buried with Siddal telling Howell:

“[it] is bound in rough grey calf and has, I am almost sure, red edges to the leaves. This will distinguish it from the bible, also there”

Such an abhorrent act left Howell’s position in the Pre-Raphaelite circles weakened Howell was seen as more of an opportunist and dealer rather than a friend of the artists, and their respective families. During the time this portrait was painted therefore Howell would have been an outcast of the Pre-Raphaelites his boredom therefore could be read as sadness or a sort of apathy.

Their relationship is interesting as the painting came about as a payment for services, rather than a fete of inspiration for Sandys, or an exploration into a story or idea, it was a transactional creation that may explain the expression of Howell. The monotony of a task is represented rather than a great celebration or representation of an exciting story. The use of such a sparse background also encourages the feeling of the painting as transactional in the other portraits that will be discussed they typically have richly decorated and vividly detailed depictions of objects, objects that would ordinarily have been acquired by Howell himself, it is therefore odd that these were not shown in his portrait as he was also known to supply for other artists, such as Rossetti.

Not only was their relationship financial however but it was also personal Howell helped reconcile the friendship between Sandys’ and Rossetti, and so a genuine care beyond financial gains was also apparent. The Howell family looked after Mary Emma Jones (Miss Clive) Sandys’ lover who will be described in further detail later in the study (as she features in one of the portraits this work will analyse) and Sandys’ stayed at their residence to nurse her so a close bond was evident. This close connection could therefore explain why such an effort has gone into the portrait to create a realistic likeness, if the painting were just a plain transactional necessity the minute detail used may not have been apparent.

The portrait of Howell can be seen as extremely informal, the aristocratic character himself would ordinarily be depicted in a grand stance and setting to help describe his status and place in the social hierarchy, it is obvious in the portrait that Howell is coming from a place of wealth by his dress. It is interesting therefore to note the relationship between Howell and the bohemian world of artists, it could have lead him to shy away from his wealth especially as his sincerity in his relationships with the artists came into question prior to this portrait.

The feeling of informality is further added by the titling of the portrait and date in the top left corner of the canvas, although the text is in a classical script the use of such inscriptions was not often used, a signature would often be included but not the sitter’s name. The painting is also unusual as with most Pre-Raphaelite paintings with the figure looking out of the canvas the figure has more of an arresting look.

Sandys and Keomi. Medea (1868)

Another sitter for Frederick Sandys was Keomi Gray (sometimes referred to as Kaomi and originally named Keytamus), she was a gyspy woman that he had met in a gypsy camp in Rome. In time she became a mistress of Sandys, and popular throughout the Pre-Raphaelite circle; not only being used by Sandys but also by Rossetti

Rossetti seemed to find Keomi amusing even at questionable times he writes: “As Kiomi said when asked why she stoned a raven to death: ‘to amuse the mind’” Such an aggressive action would have seemed unbefitting for a lady during this period and could explain the Pre-Raphaelites attraction to her, beyond her mysteriousness appearance caused by her gypsy heritage.

Keomi is said to have had many children by Sandys; Ethel, Frederick Cyril, Madeline Mabel, Herbert (according to the Gorleston Cemetery records.) Sandys and Keomi therefore had a very intimate relationship that has had rather little documentation of, although they were known to have spent a lot of time together the children have somewhat melted into obscurity. This anonymity could perhaps be because Sandys was married at the age of 27 to the even more sparsely documented Georgiana Creed. Sandys never divorced her, despite the marriage breaking up after three years and he instead abandoned her. The knowledge of the children by Keomi could have caused scandal greater than having a mistress, as Sandys was married and strict Victorian morals forbade such actions.

One of the paintings in which Keomi is featured is Medea. Carolyne Larrington states Keomi was a model for many of Sandys’ works and she is also featured in Morgan le Fay. Medea like Morgan le Fay is beauty distorted by passion and made ghastly by despair. Painting in 1868 and using oil on canvas Sandys creates a dramatic piece of work, not only in the staging of the work but how the character is depicted.

Medea is a figure from Greek Mythology, she was an enchantress with the gift of prophecy who helped Jason leader of the Argonauts with her magic abilities. Sandys’ Medea was accepted for the Royal Academy in 1868 but was not exhibited, which brought storms of protests from the art world of the time.

Their relationship and its influence.

The relationship between sitter and Sandys is shown in the successful telling of the story through Keomi’s (Medea’s) expression, Medea seems gripped in thought as she uses her various potions to do her bidding. The dramatic light of the glowing heat emanating from her magical mixture creates an intense focus upon the expression of Medea and her facial features, her face looks pale compared to her thick dark hair and the rich luxurious golden artwork behind her. Medea is clutching towards her throat adding a more horrifying, morbid feel to the painting akin to the worried expression. The uncomfortable atmosphere is further emphasised by the objects surrounding Keomi, with such a restricted viewpoint each object is deliberate and necessary. A shell containing a mysterious liquid for the incantation, gruesome copulating toads and Egyptian artefacts adorn the table around Medea, (although relevant to the Myth) they are an allusion to Keomi’s heritage which would be viewed as exotic and mysterious to the people of the time. Oriental dragons and Japanese cranes also feature in the painting such symbols would further emphasise the exotic qualities of Medea.

The close relationship between Keomi and Sandys can also be seen in the intense sexuality of the piece, Medea clutches at her clothes grazing her breast perhaps the irony of the other interpretations of the term enchantress (a seductress) is not lost as Keomi and Sandys clearly had an amorous relationship, especially if their rumoured children are to be true. Despite her sexuality being a focus of the painting this is juxtaposed by the uncomfortable feeling of dread. Medea although clutching at her breast is also clutching at a red, coral necklace, reminiscent of blood and perhaps creating connotations to a beheading. With the representations of such contrasting emotions (female sexuality and power) the painting therefore embodies the Pre-Raphaelite idea of the ‘femme fatales’.

The way in which Medea is framed also adds to the heady decadence of the piece a tight claustrophobic feeling is presented by the cropping of Medea’s elbows and the background being close behind. This close depiction of Medea, represents the dichotomy of female sexuality and ethereal soulfulness the figure is inaccessible and solitary and could be described as an erotic altarpiece as the singular figure in rich colours has a feeling of idolatry.

There was said to be an obsession which became favoured in art and literature for some in Late Victorian Britain with the transience of human life, due to epidemics from industrialisation such as tuberculosis and venereal disease. Such an atmosphere of mortality amongst the young lead to differing explanations, one being the previously mentioned ‘femme fatale’, which can be seen in the works of the Pre-Raphaelites and the works of Sandys. The ‘femme fatales’ were women unlike the meek domestic women Victorian values cherished, but instead they aroused a curiosity about themselves as they schemed and reaped the benefit of the men they manipulated then cast aside. [3] Eleanor Woods states Sandys was a fearless portrayer of the more malignant aspects of womanhood and it would seem Sandys liked to explore such women that were outside of his middle-class circles as he became involved with Keomi whilst engaged to the actress Mary Emma, otherwise known as Miss Clive.

Sandys and Miss Clive (Mary Emma Jones): Love’s Shadow (1867) and Proud Maisie (1864-1904).

 

Mary Emma Jones (her stage name was Miss Clive)  was Sandys’ great love, despite having a period in which he was bewitched by Keomi, Jones was Sandys’ main object affection until his death in 1904. They had ten children together (beating Keomi’s alleged four) although Keomi could be seen as an embodiment of the ‘femme fatales’ Jones’ beauty epitomised the style of the Pre-Raphaelites. Sandys was fascinated by Jones’ thick hair, as seen in Proud Maisie (Fig.12) as she bites at a curl, just one of thirteen separate drawings that were created of a similar design from 1864 till his death in 1904. Their close relationship is shown therefore in the wealth of work created by Sandys and inspired by Jones. The painting of a similar style is Love’s Shadow (Fig.13) the two depictions are so close however that it is fair to assume the character is the same in each. The painting depicts a stubborn and angry looking young woman Proud Maisie biting on a small bunch of delicate flowers, rather than her hair seen  in the drawings. Proud Maisie is a poem by Sir Walter Scott, written in 1818 the poem tells the story of Proud Maisie who is told that she is to die before she is able to find her husband, something that Victorian society encouraged women to hunt for.

“Tell me, thou bonny bird,

When shall I marry  me? –

“When six braw gentlemen”

Kirkwood shall carry ye”

There was a close link between the Pre-Raphaelite movement and literature. Rossetti was a poet but also a visual artist his work as a writer greatly influenced his work as an artist. For example the previously mentioned The Girlhood of Mary Virgin was accompanied by two sonnets. The rhythm of the poem Proud Maisie is reminiscent of a death toll that emphasises the overarching theme of the poem, “Proud Maisie’s” ultimate, oncoming demise. The description of Maisie as “proud” can be seen as a way of showing her beauty, Sandys is therefore showing the aftermath of Maisie’s encounter with the “bonny bird” her frustration can be seen in her actions. Usually a symbol of classic femininity the biting of the flowers could also represent the context of which the painting was set (the forest).

During the period there was a burgeoning of feminism and so it was a time in which the traditional notions of femininity and feminine identity were challenged. Sandys could therefore be using the Maisie from the poem and putting her into his own context. Maisie would be angered by her lack of suitors and in realising that her following of the tight Victorian societal traditions has been worthless, knowing that she would no longer be able to reap the reward of her hard work, she would become angered. The painting could also be a warning to women of the period showing the troubles of staying confined to the gender traditions. In the poem beauty is personified in a woman, with focus again upon her hair and clothing. Galia Ofek theorises that hair in the Victorian era evoked a strong sense of femininity and a clear construction of gender during the Victorian period. Hair could also be used to show sexuality, Swinburne wrote of Love’s Shadow in Royal Academy Notes “biting it with hard bright teeth, which add something of a tiger’s charm to the sleepy and crouching passion of her fair face.” Sandys was not simply influenced by the social aspects of the Pre-Raphaelites he was also influenced by the techniques of the Pre-Raphaelites Rossetti was also creating Lady Lilith(Fig.14) in which Adam’s first wife is seen combing her luxuriant hair.

Sandys does however work outside of Pre-Raphaelite conventions. In Love’s Shadow Sandys has (like in his portrait of Howell) used a stark background of just one colour, however there is some detailing of leaves in the bottom right-hand corner, maybe alluding to Maisie’s setting in the poem. By using such a plain almost oppressive background the actions of Maisie are emphasised, she seems out of place clearly wearing the trappings of Victorian England to be removed and left in a dark space such as in the painting makes the viewer ponder on what has caused such heartache and exile. This unanswered question is further intrigued by Maisie’s pensive look. The viewer is drawn to the eye by the intense blue used that is intensified by the violet and blue flowers in the bouquet. The successful realistic depiction of the flowers also shows Sandys training as a draughtsman and his ability when having to represent objects with a sense of realism. The colours used are of quite a subdued palette no vibrant yellows are used, instead the painting is dominated by her luxurious red hair, cascading from the centre of the canvas, down the right-hand side and again through the centre. The eye travels in a way that frames the face. It is also interesting to note the staging of the piece, Maisie does not face the viewer, looking out of the canvas, instead we seem to be catching her in a moment of personal contemplation his is reminiscent of Italian Renaissance portraiture, and is fitting for the story of the poem.

It is shown through the many previous drawings of Maisie that she was original biting on her hair, this gives the piece more of an aggressive atmosphere and slightly

manic feel. Maisie becomes more sexualised and as a result less innocent contrasting with her physical appearance in the trappings of a chaste maiden. Less emphasis is brought upon the expression in these drawing however as her face is lost in the upper right-hand corner (rather than the centre of the painting) and is overshadowed by showing more of her body and the mane of hair. The hair itself is masterfully created with thick dry brush strokes and a slightly raised surface creating the texture of fine strands of hair.

Here we can see Sandys’ move away from the formalities of other Pre-Raphaelite works.  There was a Pre-Raphaelite pastime of deep adoration for women’s beauty as, (much like the hedonistic Aesthetics movement during the period) the PRB wanted to make the world more beautiful, Rossetti defined the ideal woman of such beliefs: “This is the Lady Beauty, …By flying hair and fluttering hem”the focus upon the appearance of women is clear. Instead Maisie is presented as a powerful figure with an anger behind her beauty  (as seen in Medea) Love’s Shadow and his work with Mary Emma Jones therefore represents Sandys’ unique approach to the depiction of women showing what would have been seen in the period as a juxtaposition of female and male gender traditions; beauty and aggression. Sandys was clearly deeply inspired by Jones and this can be seen in the wealth of work created inspired by her and their relationship having allowed such close adoration.

Conclusion.

As this study into Frederick Sandys shows the atmosphere of the Victorian period lent itself to scholarly and academic communication and trade, this also transferred into the world of the arts. Not only were their subject matters and sitters shared, but the style used in their depiction. The Pre-Raphaelites were a thematic and philosophic clique whose ideals and new outlook in art was ground breaking for the period. Frederick Sandys although not seen as an elite in the circle was, as explored in this study, skilfully incomparable as a draughtsman and unfairly ignored by history.

Sandys’ personal life (with regard to his relationship with women) was also as exciting as his paintings, after his ill-fated marriage to Georgiana Creed he had relationships with two women which have been explored in this study – the actress Mary Emma Jones and the mysterious gypsy Keomi. Sandys was with Keomi for five years Mary Emma (Miss Clive) however remained with Sandys for her entire life. Such relations seem to be quite a theme in the Pre-Raphaelite circles. John Everett Millais, famed with such works as Ophelia and The Bridesmaid, despite moving away from the Pre-Raphaelite style, Millais kept the ambitions of a Pre-Raphaelite by having an affair with Ruskin’s wife, Effie which began whilst on holiday with the couple.

Rossetti had an endless obsession with his models, including Jane Burden, who became wife of his friend William Morris “Janey” as she was known in the Pre-Raphaelite circle was a cult in her own right:

“…an apparition of fearful and wonderful intensity. It’s hard to say whether she’s a grand synthesis of all Pre-Raphaelite pictures ever made – or they a “keen analysis” of her – whether she’s an original or a copy. ”

Rossetti also had a tragic relationship with Elizabeth Siddal, they met in 1850 and she was the inspiration for his sonnets and romantic love, and the model for the series of drawings he made of her although never formally engaged she did visit his rooms frequently.

Looking at these instances then one might assume that a close relationship between sitter and artist is purely a Pre-Raphaelite affair, especially with their intense focus upon feminine identity and the beauty of their muses in the work. A passionate affair based on appearance however is often seen between subject and model throughout history, due to the very nature of their reason for meeting: the aesthetic qualities of the model. It could be argued this sort of visceral relationship lends itself to Pre-Raphaelite ideals but more modern artists such as Pablo Picasso and Lucian Freud are said to have had such close relations too.

In Picasso’s Fernande series his relationship with Fernande Olivier had a bearing on the way in which she was portrayed with a strong focus on her femininity and sexuality  Lucian Freud however wanted his portraits to be ‘of’ people, not ‘like’ them, he is known to have had multiple children and grandchildren with different partners which John and Erica Middleton claim to be because of the power relationships between artist and model.

Not only does portraiture depict the sitter but some see portraits as a reflection of the artist himself, as Oscar Wilde states through his character Basil Hallward:

“every portrait that is ever painted with feeling is a portrait of the artist, not of the sitter. The sitter is merely the accident, the occasion.”

Richard Wendorf supports this view, he states because of the collaborative nature of the sitting, the work that is created is a portrait of the painter in that society, because of the way in which he has established his practice and constructed his studio. The relationship between Sandys’ and his sitters therefore could be seen as unimportant his portraits are instead a presentation of his own style and ideologies. William Hazlitt claims however the bond between painter and sitter is like the relationship of two lovers, focused on the same aims artist and sitter reinforce one another’s focuses and ardour, there is a conscious vanity in portraiture which Hazlitt claims to be the true elixir of human life Sandys’ sexual relationships with his sitters therefore becomes understandable. Whereas Hannah Westley states it is the temporal nature of painting that opens up the possibility of a relationship between artist and sitter it is charged with contradictory feelings and instincts like Hazlitt she claims it can also be an act of love, each partner gives himself without reserve. In some contexts however sitters are given president over the artist with the sitter being named in the title and the artist not being named for example in the Howell portrait by Sandys Howell’s full name is included but not Sandys’, Howell’s name is also on the left and as Westerners read from left to right this gives further prominence to the sitter.

It is evident from this study that Frederick Sandys when having a closer relationship with a sitter is able to explore his own styles and ideals further. The use of the Pre-Rephaelite archetype of the ‘femme fatales’ only transpires when Sandys has had a close physical relationship with the sitter seen in Medea, Morgan Le Fay and Love’s Shadow. When Sandys is instead a friend or acquaintance of the sitter the portraits become a lot less detailed (showing less of his own identity in the background) and more about the realistic depiction of an individual or an expression, which is seen in the Portrait of Charles Augustus Howell and Helen of Troy. Sandys’ relationship with his sitters therefore was pivotal to his creative process. The portraits explored in this study shows the individuality of the relationship Sandys had with each sitter; from sexual partner, to life partner and to just an acquaintance. Sandys’ identity to the sitter changed as greatly as the depictions of individuals created by Sandys.